gre36套正确率

篇一:]新GRE阅读理解36套

s="txt">GRE–RC–36

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目 录 新 GRE 阅读理解 36 套 .................................................................................................................................................... 1

提 示 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Exercise 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Exercise 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Exercise 3 .................................................................................................................................................................. 13

Exercise 4 .................................................................................................................................................................. 19

Exercise 5 .................................................................................................................................................................. 24

Exercise 6 .................................................................................................................................................................. 29

Exercise 7 .................................................................................................................................................................. 34

Exercise 8 .................................................................................................................................................................. 40

Exercise 9 .................................................................................................................................................................. 47

Exercise 10 ................................................................................................................................................................ 53

Exercise 11 ................................................................................................................................................................ 59

Exercise 12 ................................................................................................................................................................ 65

Exercise 13 ................................................................................................................................................................ 71

Exercise 14 ................................................................................................................................................................ 78

Exercise 15 ................................................................................................................................................................ 84

Exercise 16 ................................................................................................................................................................ 90

Exercise 17 ................................................................................................................................................................ 96

Exercise 18 ..............................................................................................................................................................101

Exercise 19 ..............................................................................................................................................................107

Exercise 20 .............................................................................................................................................................. 113

Exercise 21 .............................................................................................................................................................. 119

Exercise 22 ..............................................................................................................................................................125

Exercise 23 ..............................................................................................................................................................130

Exercise 24 ..............................................................................................................................................................136

Exercise 25 ..............................................................................................................................................................141

Exercise 26 ..............................................................................................................................................................147

Exercise 27 ..............................................................................................................................................................153

Exercise 28 ..............................................................................................................................................................159

Exercise 29 ..............................................................................................................................................................165

Exercise 30 ..............................................................................................................................................................170

Exercise 31 ..............................................................................................................................................................175

Exercise 32 ..............................................................................................................................................................181

Exercise 33 ..............................................................................................................................................................187

Exercise 34 ..............................................................................................................................................................193

Exercise 35 ..............................................................................................................................................................199

Exercise 36 ..............................................................................................................................................................205

答 案 .................................................................................................................................................................210

提 示 1. 文章篇幅、题目数量、文章与题目难度、文字界面等均有可能与正式考试有差别。使用本材料训练 者请遵循风险自担原则。但同时,编者已经尽可能使本材料符合实际考试情况。 2. 练习 Exercise1-16 有 4-6 篇文章,12-13 道题,与笔试情况相符,可作为基础训练材料。从练习 17

开始,每个练习有 10 道题,涉及 4 篇文章(1 长 3 短或 4 篇皆为短文章)和 1 个逻辑单题的短文章, 与现有的机考光盘情况相符,我们预期这是实际考试的情况,可作为模拟训练材料。( 按照现有的光 盘资料,含有长文章的 Section 的阅读量会比全部由短文章组成的 Section 的阅读量多 200-300 字, 这种不对等情况令人感到困惑,请考生留意。)

3. 一个练习的做题时间可控制在 15-17 分钟;如果能够在此时间内完成练习 1-16,则完成练习 17 及以 后的内容自然时间可以保证。按照目前机考光盘的情况,一个语文 Section 会有填空题和阅读题各

10 道。10 道填空题中包含 4 道 6 选 2 的同义词填空题和 6 道正常填空题(5 选 1 填空,以及多空格 填空),10 道阅读题中包含 1 道逻辑单题与 9 道正常阅读题。

4. 实际机考时,2 个语文部分仅会有一个 Section 会有一篇长文章;但为增加训练难度,本材料也许连 续 2 个 Section 都出现长文章,其出现频率比考试时略高。此外,每个 section 预计会有同义词题 1-2 道;在设计时考虑到同义词题较容易,故减少出题率,就此而言,本材料或许会比真实考试题目略 难。另外,按光盘情况,考试时或许出现高亮句子或短语,本练习材料未能在形式上完全反映。以 上或更多可能存在的差别,请考生留意。

5. 建议以 2-4 个练习为单位进行循环训练。首先按照考试要求时间连续做掉 2-4 个练习,然后反复再 做 3-4 遍,这时主要目标不是做对,而是总结文章结构及出题规律,之后再转向新的 2-4 练习,依次 下去。

6. 欢迎本材料使用者以各种方式就本材料的内容提出改善建议。 7. 本材料仅供私人学习交流使用,请勿用作商业用途。

8. 祝你们快乐!你们终将获得快乐。

Exercise 1 Questions 1 to 3 are based on the following reading passage.

Immediately relevant to game theory are the sex

ratios in certain parasitic wasp species that have a large excess of females. In these species, fertilized eggs Line develop into females and unfertilized eggs into males. 5 A female stores sperm and can determine the sex of

each egg she lays by fertilizing it or leaving it

unfertilized. By Fisher‘s genetic argument that the sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the number of descendants an individual will have and hence the 10 number of gene copies transmitted, it should pay a

female to produce equal numbers of sons and daughters. Hamilton, noting that the eggs develop within their host—the larva of another insect—and that the newly emerged adult wasps mate immediately and disperse, 15 offered a remarkably cogent analysis. Since only one

female usually lays eggs in a given larva, it would pay her to produce one male only, because this one male could fertilize all his sisters on emergence. Like Fisher, Hamilton looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy, 20 but he went a step further in recognizing that he was

looking for a strategy.1. The author suggests that the work of Fisher and Hamilton was similar in that both scientists c (A) conducted their research at approximately the same time (B) sought to manipulate the sex ratios of some of the animals they studied(C) sought an explanation of why certain sex ratios exist and remain stable(D) studied game theory, thereby providing important groundwork for the later development of strategy theory(E) studied reproduction in the same animal species For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply 2. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following questions aboutwasps? B c

usually lay in a single host larva?

ratios among their offspring?

among the offspring of parasitic wasps?

3. Which of the following is NOT true of the species of parasitic wasps discussed in the passage? d

(A) Adult female wasps are capable of storing sperm. (B) Female wasps lay their eggs in the larvae ofother insects.

(C) The adult female wasp can be fertilized by a male that was hatched in the same larva as herself.

(D) So few male wasps are produced that extinction is almost certain.

(E) Male wasps do not emerge from their hosts until they reach sexual maturity.

1

篇二:阅读36套分析总结

Exercise1

P1.

1Immediately relevant to game theory are the sexratios in certain parasitic wasp species that ○

2 In these species, fertilized eggs develop into females and have alarge excess of females.○

3 A female stores sperm and can determine the sex ofeach egg she unfertilized eggs into males.○

4 By Fisher‘s genetic argument that the sexratio lays by fertilizing it or leaving itunfertilized.○

will be favored which maximizes the number ofdescendants an individual will have and hence the number of gene copies transmitted, it should pay afemale to produce equal numbers of sons and

5 Hamilton, noting that the eggs develop within theirhost—the larva of another daughters.○

insect—and that the newlyemerged adult wasps mate immediately and disperse,offered a

6 Since only onefemale usually lays eggs in a given larva, it would remarkably cogent analysis.○

payher to produce one male only, because this one malecould fertilize all his sisters on

7 Like Fisher,Hamilton looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy,but he went a emergence.○

step further in recognizing that he waslooking for a strategy.

第一句话提到一个现象,就是the sexratioshave alarge excess of females;第二句话和第三句话是辅助说明这些种群里的基本背景。到这里还只是简单地陈述,下面才提出解释。 第四句话提出Fisher‘s genetic argument,即it should pay afemale to produce equal numbers of sons and daughters因为要产生最多的后代;第五句话,Hamiltonoffered a remarkably cogent analysis,表达了作者支持H的分析;第六句话就是H的分析;第七句话就是作者对H的评价,看上去是肯定的a step further。

本文是解释说明的文章,解释为何蜂群的雌性较多,涉及到两个人的理论,即F的和H的。这两者的理论不是对立的,而是H在F的基础上走得更远。作者对H持支持肯定态度。 结构上来看,先提出现象,阐述背景,提出F的理论,再提出H的分析,最后对H的分析做评价。

1. The author suggests that the work of Fisher andHamilton was similar in that both scientists

(A) conducted their research at approximatelythe same time

(B) sought to manipulate the sex ratios of someof the animals they studied

(C) sought an explanation of why certain sexratios exist and remain stable

(D) studied game theory, thereby providing importantgroundwork for the later development of strategytheory

(E) studied reproduction in the same animal species

F和H的工作相似,为什么?从第七句可以看出,looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy,A没有信息支持;B manipulate无从谈起;C虽然有个stable,但说的是sexratios,给个不确定;D后半句错了,F的可能还为以后提供基础,H的无从谈起;E the same animal species文章没有提到F研究的是什么。综上,答案应该是C。

For the following question, consider each of thechoices separately and select all that apply

2. The passage contains information that wouldanswer which of the following questions about

wasps?

□A How many eggs does the female wasp usually lay in a single host larva?

□B Can some species of wasp determine sex ratios among their offspring?

□C What is the approximate sex ratio among the offspring of parasitic wasps?

本文信息和下列哪些有关?A,第六句有信息,说的是产1个雄蜂(由第二句知是不受精卵),但其他的卵多少不能确定,故A不能选;B,第二句及第六句可以看出,后代的性别是可以决定的,即是受精还是不受精,故B对;C,蜂的性别比例,由于雌蜂多少未知,所以比例也不知。综上,答案是B。

3. Which of the following is NOT true of the species ofparasitic wasps discussed in the passage?

(A) Adult female wasps are capable of storing sperm.

(B) Female wasps lay their eggs in the larvae ofother insects.

(C) The adult female wasp can be fertilized by a male thatwas hatched in the same larva as herself.

(D) So few male wasps are produced that extinction isalmost certain.

(E) Male wasps do not emerge from their hosts until theyreach sexual maturity.

选不对的。A,第三句有信息;B,第六句有信息;C,第六句;D,显然不对,文章没有谈到extinction,而且almost certain也有点绝对;E,第五句有信息。E比较隐蔽,但是D错的太明显了,所以此题也不是很难。答案是D。

考点总结:1题:七;2题:二、六;3题:三、五、六。重点在后半段,而且是H的理论,其实主要就是考H和F的区别及H的理论的一些内容,而H的理论恰恰是作者大力支持的。所以,本文章的阅读策略就是,一遍读下来要知道F和H这两个理论,而且知道作者赞扬的是哪个,然后就详读H的理论。另外,文章的背景即二三句,虽然简单,但是也必须要能理解。

P2.

1Tocqueville, apparently, was wrong. ○2JacksonianAmerica was not a fluid, egalitarian society ○

3At least to argues E. Pessen whereindividual wealth and poverty were ephemeral conditions. ○

in hisiconoclastic study of the very rich in the United Statesbetween 1825 and 1850.

4Pessen does present a quantity of examples, togetherwith some refreshingly intelligible ○

5Thoughactive in statistics, to establishthe existence of an inordinately wealthy class. ○

commerce or the professions, most of thewealthy were not self-made, but had inherited

6In no sense mercurial, these great fortunessurvived the financial panics that familyfortunes. ○

7Indeed, in several cities the wealthiest one percentconstantly increased destroyed lesser ones.○

8Although theseobservations its share until by 1850 it ownedhalf of the community‘s wealth. ○

are true, Pessen overestimates theirimportance by concluding from them that the undoubtedprogress toward inequality in the late eighteenth centurycontinued in the Jacksonian period and that the UnitedStates was a class-ridden, plutocratic society evenbefore industrialization.

第一句,开门见山,说T显然是错的。这时我们不认识Tocqueville这个词,不过不用慌,就把它读成T就是了。第二句,应该是第一句的补充说明,说JA不是个流畅的、平等的社会,个人财产不是短暂的。第三句,至少对于P的between 1825 and 1850的反传统的

美国极富之人的研究是这样的。这就是第一段,看上去作者提出了P这个人和他的初步理论介绍。

来看第二段。第四句,说P举了例子。第五句,Though关键词,我们只关注后半句,就是富人大部分是继承得来的。第六句,说大财富吃小财富。第七句,说很少的人拥有很多的财富。第八句很长,但看到Although theseobservations are true我们就知道作者八成要批评P了。果然,作者说P过度估计了这些现象的重要性,因为不平等的过程在JA时代仍然继续,而且工业化前美国本来就是个阶级分化、富豪统治的国家。

本文是驳论文,提出P的理论,然后提出质疑。第一段起到引子的作用,第二段提出P的理论的事实基础,然后驳斥之。

4. According to the passage, Pessen indicates that all ofthe following were true of the very wealthy in the UnitedStates between 1825 and 1850 EXCEPT:

(A) They formed a distinct upper class.

(B) Many of them were able to increase their holdings.

(C)Some of them worked as professionals or inbusiness.

(D) Most of them accumulated their own fortunes.

(E) Many of them retained their wealth in spite offinancial upheavals.

除了哪项外都是P说的?A,第四句;B,第七句;C,第五句;D,第五句,但是原文说是继承的而不是自己的,most也有绝对的意味,其它选项都是many,所以D不对;E,第六句。综上,D错。

5. Which of the following best states the author‘smain point?

(A) Pessen‘s study has overturned the previouslyestablished view of the social and economicstructure of early nineteenth-century America.

(B) Tocqueville‘s analysis of the United Statesin the Jacksonian era remains the definitiveaccount of this period.

(C) Pessen‘s study is valuable primarily becauseit shows the continuity of the socialsystem in the United States throughoutthe nineteenth century.

(D) The social patterns and political power ofthe extremely wealthy in the UnitedStates between 1825 and 1850 are welldocumented.

(E) Pessen challenges a view of the social andeconomic system in the United Statesfrom 1825 to 1850, but he drawsconclusions that are incorrect.

主旨题。A,overturned不对,原文未提到;B,T应该是错的,而且也过于片面;C,valuable不对,作者持批判态度;D,不对,选项没有涉及P的理论;E,对。答案是E。

考点分析:1:四五六七;2:主旨。本文重点在后半段,即P的理论的具体分析。P的理论是作者要驳斥的主题,所以题出在这上面也就不奇怪的。值得一提的是,T是什么东西我们还是不明白,但这一点也不影响解题。

阅读策略:详读P的理论基础即后半段。

扩展分析:如果是我出题,首先可以考虑猜测T是个什么东西,和P的理论的联系,或者作者对T持有什么态度;然后就是为什么P的理论不对,作者提出的驳斥为什么有道理,或者什么事实能支持或者削弱作者的驳斥等等。感觉上这个文章只出两道题考的太浅了。

P3.

1Anaerobic glycolysis is a process in which energy isproduced, without oxygen, through the ○

breakdown ofmuscle glycogen into lactic acid and adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP), the energy

2The amountof energy that can be produced anaerobically is afunction of the amount provider. ○

3Thus of glycogen present—in allvertebrates about 0.5 percent of their muscles‘ wetweight. ○

4If, the anaerobic energy reserves of a vertebrate are proportional to the size of the animal. ○

forexample, some predators had attacked a 100-tondinosaur, normally torpid, the dinosaur would havebeen able to generate almost instantaneously, viaanaerobic glycolysis, the energy of 3,000 humans atmaximum oxidative metabolic energy production.

第一句,说无氧glycolysis(糖原发酵)是这样的过程,在没有氧气的条件下,分解肌肉中glycogen(糖原,淀粉,但不明白也能猜到是某种能量物质)成为乳酸和ATP,ATP就是能量提供者。第二句,无氧产生能量的量是g的存在量的函数,在脊椎动物中约0.5%的肌肉净重。第三句,thus关键词,说因此无氧能量与动物体型成正比。第四句,举例,100吨的恐龙立刻无氧产生3k个人类的最大能量。

本文是说明文。先介绍无氧g过程,再说能量与体型的关系,然后举例。文章结构相当简单。

6. The passage‘s suggestion that the total anaerobicenergy reserves of a vertebrate are proportional to thevertebrate‘s size is based on which of the followingassumption?

(A) larger vertebrates conserve more energythan smaller vertebrates

(B) larger vertebrates use less oxygen per unitweight than smaller vertebrates

(C) the ability of a vertebrate to consume foodis a function of its size

(D) the amount of muscle tissue in a vertebrateis directly related to its size

(E) the size of a vertebrate is proportional tothe quantity of energy it can utilize

文章的关于能量与体型的比例是基于哪个假设?

这是逻辑单题。很明显,无氧能量与肌肉净重有关,那么假设就是体型与肌肉净重成正比。D对。此题太简单。

P4.

1Extraordinary creative activity has been characterizedas revolutionary, flying in the face of Pa1○

2what is establishedand producing not what is acceptable but what willbecome accepted. ○

According to this formulation, highlycreative activity transcends the limits of an existing formand

3However, the idea that extraordinary creativity establishes a new principle of organization. ○

transcendsestablished limits in misleading when it is applied to thearts, even though it may be valid for the sciences.

4Difference between highly creative art and highly creativescience arise in part from a Pa2○

5Forthe sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of difference in their goals. ○

6Innovative science produces newpropositions in terms of which diverse thecreative act. ○

7Suchphenomena as a brilliant phenomena can berelated to one another in more coherent ways. ○

diamond or a nesting bird arerelegated to the role of data, serving as the means forformulating or

8The goal of highlycreative art is very different: the phenomenon testing a new theory. ○

9Shakespeare‘s Hamlet is not a tract about itselfbecomes the direct product of the creative act.○

the behavior ofindecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor isPicasso‘s painting Guernica

10What primarily a propositionalstatement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils offascism. ○

highly creative artistic activity produces isnot a new generalization that transcends established

11 Aesthetic particularsproduced by the highly creative limits,but rather an aesthetic particular.○

artist extend orexploit, in an innovative way, the limits of an existingform, rather than transcend that form.

12This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of Pa3○

organization in thehistory of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi,who created music of the

13More generally, however, whether or not acomposition highest aesthetic value, comesto mind. ○

14establishes a new principle in the history ofmusic has little bearing on its aesthetic worth. ○

Becausethey embody a new principle of organization, somemusical works, such as the operas of the FlorentineCamerata, are of signal historical importance, but fewlisteners or musicologists

15On the other hand, Mozart‘s would include these among thegreat works of music. ○

TheMarriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces ofmusic even though its modest

16It has been said ofBeethoven that he innovations are confinedto extending existing means. ○

17But a closestudy of toppled the rules and freed musicfrom the stifling confines of convention. ○

18Rather, he was his compositions reveals that Beethovenoverturned no fundamental rules. ○

anincomparable strategist who exploited limits—therules, forms, and conventions that he inherited frompredecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel andBach—in strikingly original ways.

本文是长阅读。

第一段.第一句,非凡的原创活动就是革命,打传统的脸并将被人们接受。第二句,根据这个定理,高度原创的活动能超越已经存在事物的限制并创造新的规则。第三句,但是,创新高于传统在艺术上有误导性,虽然在科学上是这样。

第二段,第四句,创造性的科学和艺术的区别在于它们的目的。第五句,对科学而言,创新的理论是创新行为的目的和结果。第六句,创新的科学让各种现象能更加紧密地关联。第七句,这种现象像是宝石或者筑巢的鸟,归并于数据的角色,作为形成或测试一个新理论的手段。第八句,艺术不同:现象本身就是创新行为的结果。第九句举例,哈姆莱特和格尔尼卡,我们可以预见这里会出题。第十句,艺术的原创创造的不是超越传统的新一代,而是美学的特例。第十一句,美学的特例扩展或利用传统的限制但并不超越。

第三段,第十二句,这并不否认有时候原创艺术会建立新秩序,比如Monteverdi。第十三句,但更常见的是作曲家建立新秩序和美学价值没有关系。第十四句,因为有些作品比如the FlorentineCamerata创造新的组织原则而在历史上有重要价值,但没有听众认为这些作品伟大。第十五句,另一方面,Mozart‘s TheMarriage of Figaro是伟大的作品虽然创新有限。第十六句,据说贝多芬颠覆了规则。第十七句,但更仔细的检查说他没有颠覆根本的。第十八句,或者说,他是个利用限制利用的很有创意的策略家。

本文文章是驳论文,较长,但其实脉络很清楚,要表达的观点也很明确。第一段提出论点,第二段比较科学和艺术,第三段进一步对艺术的进行深入分析。

For the following question, consider each of thechoices separately and select all that apply

7. The passage supplies information for answering whichof the following questions?

(A) Has unusual creative activity been characterized as revolutionary?

(B) Did Beethoven work within a musical traditionthat also included Handel and Bach?

(C) Who besides Monteverdi wrote music that theauthor would consider to embody new principles of organization and to be of high aesthetic value?

文章提到哪些?细节题。A,第一句给了解答;B,Beethoven是定位词,快速定位于最后三句,也能解答;C,Monteverdi定位第十二句,这是个少数例子,后面没有提到这样的人。因此答案是A和B。

篇三:新GRE阅读36套翻译

>1.1

与博弈理论相关的是某些寄生黄蜂的性别比率,他们拥有大量的雌蜂。在这些蜂类中,受精卵孵化为雌蜂,未受精卵孵化为雄蜂。雌蜂储存精子,她产的每个卵子是否受精都由雌蜂决定。根据F的基因理论,生物倾向于这样的性别比例,即能够拥有最多数量的后代,因此能最大程度复制并传递基因,为此,产生等量的雌性和雄性后代对他们是有利的。H认识到这些卵都在宿主,即另外的昆虫的幼虫中孵化;而且,新产生的成蜂马上交配二手很快消失,对这些现象的认知,提供了更让人信服的分析。由于通常一个宿主幼虫只有一个雌蜂产卵,因此只孵化一只雄蜂便可获益匪浅,因为这只雄蜂可以使同时孵化出的所有的雌蜂都受精。和F一样,H也在寻找生物进化的稳定策略,但是他更深入了一步,认识到他正在寻找这样的策略。

1.2

T学者很显然是错误所谓。J时代的美国并不是一个流动易变、平均主义的社会,个人富有和贫困只是一时的情况。至少根据P的理论,他对美国1825-1850年极富人群的研究破除了传统观念。

为了证明这个极富阶级确实存在,P提供了大量的事例和一些让人耳目一新、清楚明了的数据。虽然这些富人也活跃于商业和一些行业,但是大多数富人的财富不是白手起家的,而是家族世袭的。金融风暴使得资本少的人倾家荡产,而这些富人却得以保存并且好发无损。事实上,在一些城市这些最富裕的人的比例还继续增长,到1850年拥有一半的社会财富。虽然这些观察是真实情况,但是P根据这些得出结论,认为美国在18世纪晚期形成的无可争议的不平等在J执政时期依然持续,美国在工业革命之前就已经是一个阶级分化严重,财阀统治的社会,未免言过其实。

1.3

所谓厌氧糖酵解,是指能量在无氧状态下通过肌肉糖原分解为能量物——物乳酸和ATP的过程。厌氧能量产生的多少与糖原的多少相关——在所有脊椎动物中大约是他们肌肉敬重的0.5%。这样,脊椎动物厌氧能量的储存和动物的体积成正比。比如如果捕食者攻击一个重达100吨的恐龙,这些恐龙尽管行动迟缓,但是他们通过厌氧糖酵解产生的即时能量相当于3000个人通过有氧代谢产生的能量。

1.4

卓越的创新行为一贯被视为革命性的,公然违抗那些已经确立的东西,不是制造我们已经接受的,而是创立我们终将接受的。按照这个阐述,高度创新行为超越了既存的形式的局限,建立了新的组织原则。然而,这一定义适用于科学却不适用于艺术。高度创新艺术和创新科学之间的差异一定程度上缘于二者目标不同。对于创新科学而言,一种全新的理论即是创造性行为的目标和终极结果。创新科学

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旨在通过新的理论将丰富多彩的现象更有说服力的关联起来。比如将一颗璀璨的钻石或是一个筑巢的小鸟被降级为一个数据用于推导或是验证一个新的理论。而创新艺术的目标则截然不同:现象本身成为创新艺术的直接产品。比如莎士比亚的哈姆雷特不是要描写一个优柔寡断的王子的行为或是政治权力运用的宣传手册;同样,毕加索的画作Guernica也主要不是对西班牙内战或是法西斯罪恶的命题描述。创新艺术产生的不是超越既存界限,产生新的普遍原则,而是产生一种美学上的特殊事物。这种美学特殊事物只是以创新的方式扩大或是利用了既存形式的界限而不是去超越他们。

当然,这并不否认高度创新艺术在艺术历史中有时也建立新的组织原则;作曲家M就是一个很好的例子,他创造了音乐最高美学价值。但是广义来说,一个曲子是否能在音乐史上建立新的原则和美学价值本身无关。有些音乐作品,因为能够代表新的组织原则,如歌剧FC,具有历史符号的重要性,但是很少有听众或音乐家认为这些是伟大音乐作品。另一方面,莫扎特的费列罗的婚礼无疑是伟大的音乐作品,尽管它只有适度的创新,只是将已经存在的音乐表现方式扩展了。我们可以说贝多芬推翻了音乐规则,将音乐从僵化窒息的传统里解放出来,但是仔细研究他的作品,可以发现贝多芬推翻的并不是基本原则,实际上他是个无以伦比的战略家,以令人瞩目的原创方式利用了那些从前人那里,比如海地、莫扎特、海德尔以及巴赫,继承而来的定义,这些定义包括规则、形式和传统。

1.5

伟大的喜剧艺术从来不是超脱凡尘,它不去追求神秘化的东西,也从来不通过将与善不同的东西打上恶的烙印从而否认这种矛盾。伟大的喜剧艺术认为真理经受一切考研,所以它强调社会行为中的矛盾,而不是掩饰或是超越这些矛盾表现为超世俗符号,如神圣目标、广博目的或是自然法则。伟大的喜剧艺术的超越的时刻就是社会的时刻,它的理念是:即使我们想成为神,我们始终是人。伟大喜剧艺术家呈现给我们的喜剧化的社会,人们理性、友爱、欢乐,富有同情心并且愿意担当人类理性行动的风险。不用恳求神仙鬼怪,伟大的喜剧艺术激发人们理性的勇气,即相信人类作为人可以自己做到一切。

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Exercise 2

2.1

直到1950年,科学家试图在大脑过程和心理体验建立联系的努力仍不尽如人意。Herring 认为,不同形式的感觉,如痛觉、味觉以及对颜色的认知可能和释放的特定的神经能量有关。然而,接下来对神经能量的研究并未对这种特定多样理论提供量化的论据。虽然神经能量存在量的差异理论从来没有被严格否定,但是却基本已经不被采纳,科学家转而支持与此相反的理论,即神经冲击从根本上来说在性质上是毫无二致的,并仿佛象“通用货币”(common currency)可以在整个神经系统传递。根据这一理论,决定不同感觉的是大脑的不同区域,而非感觉神经冲击性质,对于这一观点,不乏某些证据。比如实验中,使电流通过测试者的大脑皮层特定感觉的区域,能产生了相应的感觉,即视觉来源于视觉大脑皮层、听觉来源于听觉大脑皮层,以此类推。然则,大脑区位理论就其本身而言也最终证明几乎不具有任何解释价值。

2.2

马克思主义社会学家认为,种族主义起源于阶级斗争,这种阶级斗争是资本主义的独特产物,资本主义把种族歧视作为控制工人阶级的手段。虽然这一理论适用于美国社会对于黑人的种族偏见,但是这一理论将种族歧视定义为“以种族为基础的、针对某个群体的消级的先入之见,而该群体在任何特定的种族竞争地区则被普遍认作为一个种族”也可以理解为应包括其他的种族仇视,如对加州华人和对中世纪欧洲犹太民族的敌对情绪。然而,由于针对这两类人的偏见并非由资本主义引起的,因此马克思主义社会学者为了证明自己的观点,他必须作这样的逻辑推理,即这些敌对情绪并非真正是以种族为基础。因此,他忽略了这样的事实(尽管无法令人信服),即资本主义兴起之前犹太人所面对的那种不宽容,以及二十世纪早期针对加利福尼亚州的东方人的歧视,而后者则是——不方便地——由工人所煽动引发的。

2.3

如果能够观察到(singularity),即物质无限集中的现象,并且取得对这一无可争议但是就发生在身边的奇怪现象的证据,对于物理学家将是非常理想的。但是大多数情况下,远观者并不能够看到singularity。这是因为即使发出的光线在最初几公里是singularity的,在强大的重力作用下又被拉回去了。所以,这些光线以自身的singularity而告终。

2.4

早期草原上大型哺乳动物的智力进化很大程度上是生态系统中同时存在的捕食类动物和被捕食类动物两类动物之间相互作用的结果。缘于捕食者和被捕食者之间的差异的这种相互作用,使得哺乳动物大脑机能总体上得到改善。但是,哺乳动物智力的有些方面远比其他方面有明显改善。

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由于高明的捕食者和敏锐的被捕食者之间的相互作用,哺乳动物心智方面改善最明显的就是注意力,即大脑中的将意识从一个瞬间传递到下一个瞬间的那部分。这种注意力包括很多方面,从被动的随意的意识到高度集中的主动的意识。这些意识都由觉醒系统所控制,而所谓的觉醒系统,是由神经束(tract)构成的一个网线路结构。从散漫的意识到更有活力的意识的过程中,动物对外界事物的敏感性提高了。于是,这些动物越来越机敏,在他们对外界环境越来越敏感的时候,这种机敏使得他们能够感知更加微小的信息。觉醒和集中过程引导着注意力。首先通常是觉醒,随着大脑大量信号的输出,逐渐建立起激活系统,然后是连续的形象形成了集中系统。哺乳动物这种智力发展的意义在于这些形象和其他收集到的具有可变性的信息可以和这些动物过往的经历联系起来。意识连接了过去和现在,也使得这些动物可以根据目的和结果来整合信息。

由于智力和意识共同作用极大程度上使得捕食者和被捕食者表现出不同类型。草食动物和肉食动物由于追逐猎物和免受捕食形成了不同类型的注意力。尽管在两者之间,觉醒系统都通过肾上腺产生了肾上腺激素和去肾上腺激素这两种物质,在草食动物身上主要表现为恐惧,而在肉食动物身上则表现为进攻。对两者而言,觉醒系统使这些动物能够对将要发生在他们眼前的事情做好准备。动物可能不会像人类一样进行事先思考,但是他们可能也经历了类似的过程。在神经系统和肾上腺激素调节下,尽管捕食者是攻击型,内在驱动的,但是哺乳动物的自觉意识从某种程度上来说更像人的意识一样发挥着作用,而下面的情形则相去甚远,比如一只饥饿的蜥蜴会本能的朝着飞过的甲虫咬过去。

以过往的经历为参照,大型哺乳捕食动物在运动和食物之间建立起联系,敏感关注着冰冷小路上和远处产来的声响,还有过去难忘的教训。食草动物则是另外不同的心理,警觉而不是四处寻觅猎物,他们等待而不是预谋的态度犹如一层薄纱,掩盖着平静下面具有爆发力的内分泌系统。

2.5

Gutman在研究奴隶广大的亲缘关系网时有了重要发现,即与庄园主们同族通婚形成鲜明对比,奴隶之间主要是(转自:wWw.DXf5.Com 东星 资源网:gre36套正确率)异族通婚,很少同族通婚。关于异族通婚的原因,Gutman认为可能缘于西非有关婚姻的规定,在西非各个部族,关于婚姻的规定尽管不同,但是都有关于禁止近亲结婚的内容。Gutman认为,这种禁止近亲通婚的规定非常重要,因为它表明着奴隶们具有广大亲缘关系网是有强烈意识的。此外,认为远亲能够照顾与大家庭分离的孩子也体现了这种意识。而在西南地区新近形成的庄园主中,由于实际的血亲关系寥寥无几,虚拟的血亲安排就会取代真正的血亲,直到新的同血缘关系形成。Gutman令人信服的证据表明,奴隶们这种形成于18世纪中晚期的广泛的亲缘关系结构,是奴隶们具有强烈集体意识的基础。

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Exercise 3

3.1

星空下的黑色区域并不像人们一直以为的是没有星星的。实际上,这些区域呈现黑色是因为星际间的尘埃把星星遮挡在下面了。虽然视觉效果很明显,但是尘埃只占那些密度极低的星际物质中很少的一部分。太阳附近的平均星际密度比地球上能达到的最真空状态的密度还要小1000到10000倍。因为星际间的距离是如此之大以至于单位体积很小的物质也变得很明显。尽管星际间的气体非常透明,但是由于尘埃不透明,所以最直接影响到光学天文学。

3.2

在H(哈代)的小说中,各种冲动经常和不可避免地互为牺牲。之所以不可避免,是因为H不像其他小说家如F或J那样小心谨慎,因此他选择了最少有抵制的创作道路。所以,很不幸常常一个冲动被另一新的冲动代替,不是相互协调,而是简单消失。一种从不曾得以实现的揭示现实的欲望,可能突然被另一想法——一定程度上我们可以理解为一个小说科学家要去精确具体记录一朵花的构造和纹理——突然取代。在这个比方中,新的冲动至少是富有活力的,所以沉迷于此不会导致松散的写作风格。但是有时候,H抛弃了危险、冒险和具有活力的冲动,而去追求对于他来说非常松散的冲动去抽象地总结和归纳。当采用这样一个松散的冲动时,能显示一个作者文学价值的写作风格不可避免变得冗长。

3.3

一个奇怪的现象是水上迁徙的过程。鸟、蜜蜂还有其他动物物种能够不用任何外在感知提示判断时间,这种生物钟很显然有助于他们的方向感。例如,他们可以利用太阳或星星的位置以及当时是一天中的什么时间来找到北。但是单独的方向感不能解释鸟类如何在海上辨别方向:当一群正向东飞行的鸟群被一场暴风雪吹得偏南,他们就会向东北方向飞以进行调整。一些科学家认为,可能这些物种通过天体导航,辨别他们在地球上的地理位置,如同人类航海家利用星星导航一样,但是这需要这些动物具有格外好的地图感。研究者现在知道一些物种有磁感应,可以使迁徙的动物通过地球磁场的变化来辨别地理位置。

3.4

建立在深化和传奇至少保持了历史事实的核心的前提上,B学者认为,妇女在很多古代社会占主导地位。他的作品建立在丰富的参考文献调查基础上,这些调查针对A和其他具有母系传统社会,即血统和财产权按照母系传承的社会。这一理论可以在H,公元前3世纪的古希腊历史学家得到论据支持。然而,这种认为古代神话的原始记录能够得以保存的假设是有争议的。古希腊针对这些社会的描述并不意味着能够代表客观的历史事实——真正的A社会,而只是给他们社会的母系统治所谓的结果提

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